toefl grammar

TOEFL Grammar Part 1: Basic Sentence Structure

There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as follows:

S-V		Subject-Verb		John sleeps.
				Jill is eating.
				Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O		Subject-Verb-Object		I like rice.
				She loves her job.
				He's eating an orange.
S-V-Adj		Subject-Verb-Adjective		He is funny.
				The workers are lazy.
				Karen seems angry.
S-V-Adv		Subject-Verb-Adverb		Jim is here.
				Flowers are everywhere.
				No one was there.
S-V-N		Subject-Verb-Noun		She is my mom.
				The men are doctors.
		Mr. Jones is the teacher.

At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.

She sleeps.		Core sentence
She sleeps soundly.		An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa.		A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon.		A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now.		Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.
Mary will sleep later.		Subject is named and another tense is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage.		New subject may require a different form of the verb.

Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

They like rice.		Core sentence
The people like rice.		Specific subject
The friendly people like rice.		Subject modified with an adjective
The people in the restaurant like rice.		Subject modified with an adjective
The people like boiled rice.		Object modified with an adjective
The people like hot, white rice.		Object modified with more than one adjective

Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.

He is fine.		Basic sentence with "be" verb
He seems happy.		Basic sentence with another linking verb
Jordan is tall, dark and handsome.		Series of adjectives
He appears very comfortable.		Adverb or intensifier added
George became sick last night.		Different tense and linking verb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.

The teacher is here.		Basic sentence
The teacher is over there.		Using an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere.		Plural noun and verb used
The teachers are in the lobby.		Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.

The man is a doctor.		Basic sentence
The women are doctors.		Using plural noun and verb
My father is a nice guy.		Modified subject and complement
My grandparents are senior citizens.		Modified plural subject and complement

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

Conjunctions and Linking Words

Coordinators

Coordinators connect elements of equal importance.

S + V , but S + V

(and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet)

S + V and V

S and S + V

N and N

Adj. and Adj.

Phrase and Phrase

Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D

Examples:

He drinks coffee, but she drinks tea.

(S + V , coordinator S +V)

Gary lives in Ohio, and Deana lives in Michigan.

She loves to dance, so she bought a studio.

You could buy a car, or you could put the money in the bank.

When there is a new subject and verb, a comma is used before (not after) the coordinator.

I hate to sing but, I love to dance. (Incorrect)

I hate to sing, but I love to dance. (Correct)

John and George both play football. Paul listens to music and reads books. John, Paul, George, and Harry are classmates.

(two subjects) (two verbs) (series)

*For is also commonly used as a preposition. Yet can sometimes be used as an adverb.

Subordinators

Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as strong as the other.

The most common subordinators are:

although, even though, because, since*, so that, when, while, before*, after*, whenever, wherever, anywhere, if, unless, whether [or not] as, as [adjective] as, whereas

(to show slight contrast) (to give reasons) (to indicate time relationships) (to indicate place) (to indicate conditions) (to give comparisons) (to show major contrast)

Subordinators have an interesting effect on words in a sentence. A clause (S +V) without a subordinator can stand alone as a complete statement.

I went to the store yesterday.

(Complete statement)

However, when a subordinator is added, the statement seems incomplete.

When I went to the store yesterday, . . .

(Well, what happened?)

The subordinating clause becomes dependent on something else to complete its meaning:

When I went to the store yesterday, I saw an old friend.

(Idea is complete)

Subordinating or "dependent" clauses can occur at the beginning or end of asentence. When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is necessary after the clause itself.
In English, the subordinator always comes before the subject and verb in a clause.

Example:

I went to the grocery store after, I stopped at the bank. After I went to the grocery store, I stopped at the bank.

(Incorrect) (Correct)

Subordinators and coordinators should not be used in the same sentence to introduce clauses. Choose one or the other, but do not use both together.

*These words can also be used as prepositions.

S + V although S + V

Although S + V , S + V

Example Although Nina won the prize, but she was not happy. Although Nina won the prize, she was not happy. Nina won the prize, but she was not happy.

(Wrong) (Correct) (Also correct)

Sentence Connectors

Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very different ideas.

S + V . However, S + V		(however, therefore, thus, moreover,
		nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
S + V ; however, S + V		besides, consequently, furthermore)

Example:

She drinks coffee. He drinks tea. She drinks coffee, but he drinks tea. She drinks coffee, and he drinks tea. She drinks coffee; he drinks tea. Although she drinks coffee, he drinks tea. She drinks coffee although he drinks tea. Although she drinks coffee, but he drinks tea. She drinks coffee; however, he drinks tea. She drinks coffee. However, he drinks tea. She drinks coffee. He, however, drinks tea.

(Two separate sentences) (Coordination) (Both ideas are equal) (Closely related ideas) (Subordination) (One idea is stronger) (INCORRECT!) (Sentence connector) (Stronger break between ideas) (Variation)

Remember:

A period (.) provides the strongest break between ideas.

A semicolon (;) is next, and a comma (,) provides the weakest separation.

Coordinators provide connection between equal ideas.

(and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet)

Examples:

Mom and Dad

red or green

She stayed, but he left.

Subordinators provide connection between unequal ideas.

(because, although, when, while, if, as, since, whenever, wherever?)

Example:

He didn't go to work because he was sick.

Although John was unhappy, he still smiled.

Sentence Connectors provide connection between large groups of ideas/sentences. (usually paragraphs)

(therefore, otherwise, thus, in conclusion, furthermore?)

Prepositions

Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence. They are followed by noun phrases only and cannot take on a S + V.

Prepositions indicate relationships between words or ideas. Most prepositions deal with location and are easy to learn.

above inside beside near up before* with into between like despite

below outside beyond nearby down after* without out (of) among as in spite of

over around behind by toward during within off except than beneath

under through in front of next to along (side) since* until* upon but* about underneath

*These can also be used as conjunctions.

Some prepositions, however, have more than one meaning and can be very confusing.

in to

on from

at for

of

S + V (prep. phrase)		(durat
		despite, in spite of, for*, since*, by
(Prep. phrase), S + V		like, except, but*, about, to*, from
		between [A and B], among, with
(Prep. phrase) V + S (unusual)		within, without, beside, near, next to)

Subject-Verb Agreement

Third person singular -s

Use the -s form of a verb in the present tense when the subject is third person singular.
For all other subjects, use the base form in the present tense.

Example:

base form

I live in Athens.

They live in Crete.

The Smiths live in Rome.

-s form

He lives in Cyprus.

She lives in Malta.

Tim lives in Naples.

Ms. Conner lives in Milan.

The verb have

The -s form of the verb have is has.

We have a winner.

He has a trophy.

The verb be

The -s form (present tense) for be is is. For the past tense, it is was.

Was is also used with first person singular subjects (I) in the past tense.

(Am is used in the present tense. Are is used with other subjects in the present, and were is used in the past.)

She is here.

He is not here.

I am here too.

You are right.

They are wrong.

She was home yesterday.

Ron wasn't home yesterday.

I was here yesterday.

We were here too.

Auxiliary verbs

When auxiliary verbs are used, only the first verb carries the third person singular -s.

Jean does not like spaghetti. (Correct)

Jean does not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)

Jean do not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)

Elsa is eating her dinner. (Correct)

Elsa is eats her dinner. (Wrong!)

Leo is going to eat later.

Frank has eaten lunch already. (Correct)

Frank have eaten lunch already. (Wrong!)

Modals

Do not use the -s form of the verb with modals, regardless of the subject.

Ian can eat twelve bowls of rice. (Correct)

Ian can eats twelve bowls of rice. (Wrong!)

Reductive Relative Clause

You may delete the relative pronoun and the be verb when:

1. they are followed by a prepositional phrase.

A)  The man who is in the house is my father.

      (The man in the house is my father.)

B) The books that are on the desk are mine

     (The books on the desk are mine.)

2. the main verb in the relative clause is progressive.

A) The man who is swimming in the lake is my father.

    (The man swimming in the lake is my father.)

B) The books that are lying on the floor are mine.

     (The books lying on the floor are mine.)

You may NOT delete the relative pronoun and the be verb when :

1. they are followed by an adjective:

The man who is angry is my father

X The man angry is my father

(However, you may switch the positions of the adjective and noun.)

The angry man is my father. (okay)

2. they are followed by a noun:

The man who is a doctor is my father.

X The man a doctor is my father.

The relative pronoun can be deleted if there is a new subject and verb following it:

A. This is the house that Jack built.

B. This is the house Jack built.

A. The person whom you see is my father.

B. The person you see is my father.

A. This is the place where I live.

B. This is the place I live.

A. I don't know the reason why she is late.

B. I don't know the reason she is late

(Also : I don't know why she is late. )

A. The woman whom he likes is married.

B. The woman he likes is married.

Notes:

Do not delete a relative pronoun that is followed by a verb other than be:

The man who likes lasagna is my father.

X The man likes lasagna is my father.

Never delete the relative pronoun whose:

The man whose car broke down went to the station.

X The man car broke down went to the station.

see more about relative clause here!

Reducting Adverbial Clauses

Same time Time clauses with "while" and "when" can be reduced by deleting the subject and "be" verb. Example: > While I was eating dinner, I watched television. > While eating dinner, I watched television. > When you are in Rome, (you) do as the Romans do. > When in Rome, do as the Romans do. If there is no "be" verb, change the verb in the subordinating clause to its -ing form. Sometimes the subordinator (when or while) can be deleted as well. Example: > When I opened the door, I saw a strange sight. >When opening the door, I saw a strange sight. > Opening the door, I saw a strange sight. Note: If the subjects are different, you may not reduce the adverbial clause. > While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.    While taking a shower, my sister called from California (Incorrect) Be careful when reducing time clauses that come at the end of sentences. Example: > We saw many beautiful birds while we were fishing in the lake. > We saw many beautiful birds while fishing in the lake.    We saw many beautiful birds fishing in the lake. (incorrect) In the last sentence, the meaning is ambiguous: Are we fishing or are the birds fishing? Different times Example: > After I finished my homework, I went to bed. > After finishing my homework, I went to bed. > After I had finished my homework, I went to bed. > After having finished my homework, I went to bed. > Having finished my homework, I went to bed. > Before he left the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend. Before leaving the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend. Other clauses Sometimes clauses with because can be reduced. Example: > Because he was a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation. > Being a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation. > As a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.

Practical Phrase

In Time Clauses:

Example:

While I was coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.

can be:

While coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.

Coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.

When she opened the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.

can be:

When opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.

Opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.

Before he left the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.

can be:

Before leaving the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.

Important Note:

*Make sure the subject of the main clause and the subject of the participial phrase are the same.

  > While taking a shower, my sister called from California. (INCORRECT)

     While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.

     While taking a shower, I received a call from my sister in California.

In Absolutes:

The vase was knocked over by the cat. It lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.

can be:

Knocked over by the cat, the vase lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.

The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, and it left the crumbs for the cockroaches.

can be:

The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, leaving the crumbs for the cockroaches.

The little boy was lost and afraid. He called for his mother.

can be:

The little boy, lost and afraid, called for his mother.

Lost and afraid, the little boy called for his mother.

see more about Clause and Phrase

Introductory Phrase

Introductory phrases and clauses

Example:

John invited Mary to a movie. Mary had seen the movie twice already. Mary was reluctant to accept John's invitation.

Because she had seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John's invitation (to the movie).

it can be:

Having seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John's invitation.

Intermediary phrases and clauses

Example:

Senator James humbly submitted his resignation. The press hounded Senator James for months on charges of tax evasion.

it can be:

> Senator James, whom the press hounded for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his   

    resignation.

> Senator James, who was hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his 

   resignation.

> Senator James, hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his resignation.

Other

Example:

Mr. Smith swept the floor. Mr. Smith dusted the shelves. Mr. Smith turned out the lights. Then he left the building.

it can be:

> Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before he left the building.

> Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before leaving the building.

> Before leaving the building, Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights.

> After sweeping the floor, dusting the shelves, and turning out the lights, Mr. Smith left the building.

> Having swept the floor, dusted the shelves and turned out the lights, Mr. Smith left the building.

sumber : http://rydhasnote.blogspot.com/2012/09/toefl-grammar-part-1-basic-sentence.html